Europe

Roofing Materials

• Ardennes SlateRoofing slate from the Ardennes uplands of Belgium, France and Luxembourg, quarried from the Middle Ages until the late 20th century.
• Asbestos-Cement RoofingRoof sheets and slates made of cement reinforced with asbestos fibres, widely used in the 20th century and now banned in many countries as a health hazard.
• Asphalt ShingleA flexible roofing unit made of a mat coated in asphalt and surfaced with mineral granules, laid in overlapping courses on pitched roofs.
• Beaver-Tail TileA flat clay roof tile with a rounded or shaped tail, known in German as Biberschwanz; traditional in southern and eastern Germany and central Europe.
• Bitumen ShingleThe usual European name for an asphalt shingle: a glass-fibre mat coated with bitumen and granules, nailed to a continuous deck.
• Clay Roof TileA roofing unit moulded or extruded from clay and fired in a kiln; one of the oldest and most widespread roof coverings in the world.
• Collyweston Stone SlateA frost-split limestone roofing slate from Collyweston, Northamptonshire, England, traditionally exposed to winter frosts to make it split.
• Combed Wheat ReedWheat straw combed to remove leaf and grain and laid butt-end down, giving a neat finish; traditional in south-west England, where it is called Devon reed.
• Concrete Roof TileA roof tile moulded from sand, cement and pigment; a heavy, economical alternative to clay made in many profiles worldwide.
• Corrugated Bitumen SheetA lightweight corrugated roofing sheet of plant fibres saturated with bitumen, used on sheds, outbuildings and agricultural roofs.
• Corrugated Iron (Corrugated Galvanised Iron)Corrugated iron is sheet metal rolled into parallel waves for stiffness; patented in 1829, it became a defining roofing material of farms, colonies and industry.
• Cotswold Stone SlateLimestone roofing slates from the Cotswolds of England, laid in diminishing courses on steep roofs and fixed with oak pegs.
• Delabole SlateRoofing slate from the Delabole quarry in north Cornwall, worked continuously since the 15th century and one of England's largest slate quarries.
• Fibre-Cement SlateA thin, flat roofing slate made of cement reinforced with fibres; a uniform, lower-cost manufactured alternative to natural slate.
• German Roofing SlateRoofing slate from Germany's Mosel, Hunsrück, Sauerland and Thuringian deposits, added to the IUGS heritage stone list in 2024.
• Glazed Roof TileA clay roof tile coated with a glassy glaze before firing, giving a glossy, coloured surface; prominent in East Asian and some European architecture.
• Handsplit ShakeA wooden shake with at least one face split along the grain, giving a rough, textured surface; often made as handsplit-and-resawn.
• Horsham StoneA flaggy Cretaceous sandstone from the Weald around Horsham, England, split into heavy roofing slabs for churches, barns and manor houses.
• Interlocking Clay TileA pressed clay roof tile with grooves on its sides and head that lock into neighbouring tiles; the French or Marseille tile is the classic form.
• Lead RoofingLead roofing uses heavy, highly malleable rolled lead sheet for flat roofs, dormers, bays and flashings, laid in limited bay sizes to control creep and movement.
• Long Straw ThatchThatch made from threshed wheat or rye straw laid with ears and butts mixed, giving a shaggy, 'poured-on' look; traditional in lowland England.
• Mission TileA two-piece curved clay roof tile system of half-round pans and covers, also called barrel tile or monk-and-nun tile.
• Natural SlateA fine-grained metamorphic rock split into thin, durable roofing units; among the longest-lasting roof coverings in use.
• PantileA single-lap clay roof tile with an S-shaped profile that combines the functions of pan and cover in one piece.
• Plain TileA small, flat roof tile, traditionally clay, hung on battens in double-lap courses so that every point of the roof is covered by at least two tiles.
• Pre-Weathered ZincPre-weathered zinc is titanium-zinc sheet given a factory surface treatment so it looks like naturally weathered grey zinc from the day it is installed.
• Roll RoofingAsphalt-saturated felt or mat supplied in rolls and surfaced with mineral granules, used as an economical exposed roof covering on low-slope and utility roofs.
• Scottish SlateNatural roofing slate once quarried in Scotland's West Highlands, Highland Border and Aberdeenshire; none has been quarried since 1965.
• Sod RoofA traditional Scandinavian roof of turf laid over layers of birch bark on gently sloping boards; the forerunner of modern green roofs.
• Solar ShingleA photovoltaic module shaped and installed like a roofing shingle or tile, so that it forms part of the roof covering while generating electricity.
• Spanish SlateNatural roofing slate from north-west Spain, mainly Galicia; Spain supplies about 90% of Europe's roofing slate.
• Spanish TileA one-piece clay or concrete roof tile with a deep S-curve that imitates two-piece barrel tiling in a single unit.
• Stone SlateA roofing unit split from sedimentary limestone or sandstone, laid in diminishing courses; traditional in parts of Britain, France and the Alps.
• Stonesfield SlateA frost-split Jurassic limestone roofing slate from Stonesfield, Oxfordshire, used on prestigious Cotswold and Oxford buildings and famous for its fossils.
• ThatchA roof covering of dry plant stems such as reed, straw, sedge, palm or grass, laid thickly so rain runs off the outer layer.
• Water Reed ThatchThatch made from the stems of common reed harvested from wetlands; the most durable thatching material in northern Europe.
• Welsh SlateRoofing slate quarried in north-west Wales, historically the world's leading source and now part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Wood ShakeA thick, rough-textured wooden roofing unit split from a log on at least one face, giving a rugged, deeply shadowed roof.
• Wood ShingleA thin, tapered piece of wood, sawn on both faces, laid in overlapping courses as a roof or wall covering.
• Zinc Roofing (Titanium-Zinc)Zinc roofing uses an alloy of zinc with small amounts of copper and titanium that weathers to a self-healing blue-grey patina and is common in Europe.

Low-Slope & Flat Roof Systems

• APP Modified BitumenModified bitumen membrane made with atactic polypropylene, giving a stiff, heat-resistant sheet that is normally torch-applied.
• Ballasted Roof SystemA low-slope roof in which the membrane and insulation are loose-laid and held down by the weight of stone or concrete pavers.
• Cellular Glass InsulationRigid, closed-cell insulation made by foaming crushed glass, impermeable to water and vapour and able to carry heavy loads on roofs.
• EPDM RoofingSynthetic rubber single-ply membrane, usually black, joined with seam tapes or adhesives, and installed ballasted, mechanically attached or fully adhered.
• GRP (Fibreglass) Flat RoofingA flat-roof covering of polyester resin and chopped glass-fibre mat laminated on site over a timber deck and finished with a pigmented topcoat.
• Hot-Melt Rubberised BitumenA thick, seamless waterproofing of polymer-modified bitumen melted on site and applied hot with fabric reinforcement, mainly for inverted, podium and buried roofs.
• Induction Welding (Roofing)Attaching single-ply membrane by bonding it to coated plates fastened to the deck, using an induction heating tool, so the sheet is not pierced.
• Liquid-Applied RoofingSeamless waterproofing formed by applying liquid resin by brush, roller or spray, often with a fleece or fabric reinforcement, that cures into a membrane.
• Low-Slope RoofA roof with only a slight incline, usually 2:12 or less, covered with a continuous waterproof membrane rather than overlapping shingles or tiles.
• Mastic Asphalt RoofingA traditional UK and European flat-roof waterproofing of hot bitumen and fine mineral aggregate, spread by hand into a seamless, monolithic layer.
• Mineral Wool Roof InsulationDense non-combustible boards of stone or slag fibres used as flat-roof insulation where fire resistance, acoustics or dimensional stability matter.
• Modified Bitumen RoofingFactory-made roofing sheets of asphalt blended with polymers such as SBS or APP and reinforced with polyester or glass fibre, laid in one or more plies.
• Overflow (Secondary) Roof DrainageEmergency drains or scuppers set above the primary drains so that water can leave a low-slope roof if the main outlets are blocked.
• PIB Roofing MembraneSingle-ply membrane made from polyisobutylene, usually fleece-backed with a welding edge, long used in Germany and compatible with bitumen.
• PMMA Liquid RoofingFast-curing two-part polymethyl methacrylate resin, reinforced with polyester fleece, used for flat roofs, flashing details, balconies and walkways.
• Polyiso (Polyisocyanurate) Roof InsulationRigid thermoset foam board with facers, the most common low-slope roof insulation in North America, valued for high thermal resistance per thickness.
• Positive Drainage and Roof FallsThe design principle that a low-slope roof must have enough built-in slope (fall) to shed water within a set time, allowing for deflection and tolerances.
• Protected Membrane Roof (Inverted Roof)A low-slope roof in which the insulation is placed above the waterproofing, protecting it, and is held down by ballast or paving.
• PVC RoofingPolyvinyl chloride single-ply membrane made flexible with plasticisers and joined by hot-air welding; the first single-ply type standardised in the US.
• Reinforced Bitumen Membrane (RBM)The UK and European term for factory-made bitumen roofing sheets with polyester or glass reinforcement, laid in multi-layer systems on flat roofs.
• SBS Modified BitumenModified bitumen membrane made elastic with styrene-butadiene-styrene rubber, installed by torch, hot asphalt, cold adhesive or self-adhesion.
• Single-Ply RoofingLow-slope roofing that uses one layer of factory-made polymer sheet, such as TPO, PVC, EPDM or PIB, joined at seams and held by ballast, fasteners or adhesive.

Roof Components

• BargeboardA bargeboard is a board fixed along the sloping edge of a gable roof, covering the ends of the roof structure, often decoratively carved.
• Cold RoofA cold roof is a pitched roof insulated at ceiling level, leaving a ventilated, unheated loft or attic space between the insulation and the roof covering.
• Ice and Water Shield (Self-Adhered Ice Barrier)Ice and water shield is a self-adhering polymer-modified bitumen membrane applied at eaves, valleys and penetrations to stop water backed up by ice dams.
• King Post TrussA king post truss is a simple triangular roof frame with a single central vertical post rising from the tie beam to the apex.
• Lead SoakersLead soakers are small sheets of lead interleaved with each course of slates or tiles at an abutment, the UK and Irish counterpart of step flashing.
• Queen Post TrussA queen post truss is a roof frame with two vertical posts set either side of centre on the tie beam, linked at the top by a straining beam.
• Snow Guards and Snow RetentionSnow guards are devices fixed to a roof to hold or break up snow and ice so it does not slide off in dangerous slabs; they are especially common on metal roofs.
• Vapour-Permeable Underlay (Breather Membrane)A vapour-permeable underlay, or breather membrane, is a roof underlay that resists liquid water but lets water vapour pass, widely used in UK and European pitched roofs.
• Warm RoofA warm roof is a construction in which insulation follows the roof slope or sits above the deck, so the structure and roof space stay within the heated envelope.

Roof Shapes & Forms

• A-Frame RoofAn A-frame is a building whose steep roof planes start near the ground and meet at the ridge, so the roof also forms most of the walls.
• Butterfly RoofA butterfly roof is an inverted gable: two roof planes slope down from the outer walls to a central valley, like a pair of raised wings.
• Dutch Gable Roof (Gablet Roof)A Dutch gable roof is a hip roof topped with a small gable (gablet) at the ridge ends; in Britain the term also means a curved, shaped gable parapet.
• Flat RoofA flat roof is a roof that is almost level, laid to a slight fall for drainage and covered with a continuous waterproof membrane rather than overlapping units.
• Gambrel RoofA gambrel roof is a two-sided roof with two slopes on each side, a steep lower slope and a shallow upper one, giving a characteristic barn profile.
• Hyperbolic Paraboloid Roof (Hypar)A hyperbolic paraboloid roof is a saddle-shaped, doubly curved roof that can be built from straight members, used for thin concrete shells and tensile structures.
• Jerkinhead Roof (Clipped Gable)A jerkinhead roof is a gable roof whose peak is clipped by a small hip, combining a mostly vertical gable with a short sloping face at the top.
• M-Shaped RoofAn M-shaped roof is two parallel gable roofs side by side, joined by a central valley or gutter, giving an M-shaped end profile.
• Mansard RoofA mansard roof is a four-sided roof with two slopes on each face, the lower one steep and often pierced by dormers, the upper one shallow.
• Saltbox and Catslide RoofA saltbox roof is an asymmetric gable roof with one long slope reaching low at the back; a catslide is a roof that extends below the main eave line.

Installation & Methods

• Altdeutsche DeckungThe 'Old German' slating method, using hand-dressed slates of graded sizes laid in rising courses; regarded as the most demanding German slate technique.
• BS 5534 Fixing SpecificationBS 5534 is the British code of practice for slating and tiling; its fixing specification sets how every tile, ridge and verge is mechanically secured.
• Cold Weather RoofingCold weather roofing covers the extra precautions needed below normal application temperatures, from warming materials to hand-sealing shingles.
• Dry-Fix Ridge SystemA dry-fix system secures ridge, hip or verge tiles with mechanical fixings, seals and ventilated rolls instead of mortar.
• Fragile RoofA roof or roof element, such as old fibre-cement sheeting or a rooflight, that will not safely carry a person's weight; a leading cause of roof-work deaths.
• Ice Barrier InstallationAn ice barrier is a self-adhering membrane or cemented underlayment installed at the eaves to resist water backing up under shingles from ice dams.
• Slate Hook FixingA method of securing roofing slates with metal hooks that grip the slate's tail, as an alternative to nailing through holes near the head or centre.
• Thatch RidgeA thatch ridge is the separate covering laid over the apex of a thatched roof to bind and protect the main coat; it is renewed more often than the roof.
• Thatching ProcessThatching lays bundles of water reed, wheat straw or similar plants in thick overlapping coats, fixed with sways, spars and liggers and finished with a ridge.
• Tile BattensTile battens are horizontal timber strips fixed across the rafters or deck that set the spacing of tile or slate courses and provide their fixing point.
• Ventilation and Condensation Under Metal RoofsSome metal roofs, notably zinc and lead, need a ventilated or drained space beneath them so condensation cannot corrode the metal's underside.
• Wood Shingle InstallationWood shingle installation lays sawn cedar shingles in triple-coverage courses with small gaps, two nails each and exposures set by length and pitch.
• Work at Height Regulations 2005The Work at Height Regulations 2005 are the main UK law on preventing falls, requiring a hierarchy of avoid, prevent and minimise for all work at height.
• YealmingYealming is the preparation of wetted long straw into neat, compact layers called yealms that a thatcher can carry onto the roof and lay.

Standards, Codes & Testing

• BBA Agrément CertificateA BBA Agrément Certificate is a UK document from the British Board of Agrément assessing a construction product's fitness for purpose and building regulations compliance.
• BREEAMBREEAM is a sustainability assessment and certification method for buildings, first published by the UK's Building Research Establishment in 1990.
• BS 5534BS 5534 is the British code of practice for slating and tiling pitched roofs and vertical cladding, including wind loading and mechanical fixing rules.
• CE Marking and Declaration of Performance (Construction Products)In the EU, roofing products covered by a harmonised standard must carry CE marking and a Declaration of Performance under the Construction Products Regulation.
• CEN/TS 1187CEN/TS 1187 is the European technical specification with four test methods for how roofs behave when exposed to fire from outside.
• DTU 40 Series (France)The French NF DTU 40 series are the technical rules for pitched roof coverings in France, covering slate, clay and concrete tiles, metal sheet and roof drainage.
• EN 10346EN 10346 is the European standard for continuously hot-dip coated steel sheet, covering zinc, zinc-magnesium, aluminium-zinc and other coatings used in roofing.
• EN 12326EN 12326 is the European standard for natural roofing slate, setting requirements for slate and carbonate slate used on roofs and walls.
• EN 1304EN 1304 is the European product standard defining requirements for clay roofing tiles and fittings for pitched roofs and wall cladding.
• EN 13501-5EN 13501-5 is the European system for classifying how roofs perform when exposed to external fire, giving classes such as BROOF(t1) to FROOF(t4).
• EN 14437EN 14437 is the European test method for measuring the wind uplift resistance of installed clay and concrete roof tiles on a test roof.
• EN 1991-1-3 (Eurocode 1 Snow Loads)EN 1991-1-3 is the part of Eurocode 1 that sets out how to calculate snow loads on roofs and structures in Europe.
• EN 1991-1-4 (Eurocode 1 Wind Actions)EN 1991-1-4 is the part of Eurocode 1 that sets out how to calculate wind loads on buildings, roofs and cladding in Europe.
• EN 490 and EN 491EN 490 sets product requirements for concrete roof tiles and fittings in Europe, and EN 491 gives the matching test methods.
• EN 544EN 544 is the European product standard for bitumen shingles with mineral and/or synthetic reinforcement, used for pitched roofs and wall cladding.
• EN 988EN 988 is the European specification for rolled zinc-copper-titanium sheet and strip used for roofing, cladding and rainwater goods.
• Garantie DécennaleFrance's ten-year builder liability for serious defects, set by the 1978 Spinetta law, with compulsory insurance for builders and owners.
• Lead Sheet CodesLead codes (3 to 8) are the UK and European shorthand for rolled lead sheet thickness under BS EN 12588, from about 1.3 mm to 3.6 mm.
• ÖNORM B 3419Austrian standard for the design and construction of roof and wall coverings, setting permitted pitches, substrates and wind-load fastening.
• UK Building Regulations and Approved Documents (B, C, L)In England, the Building Regulations are supported by Approved Documents; Parts B (fire), C (moisture) and L (energy) most affect roofs.
• ZVDH Roofing Rules and DIN 4108 (Germany)German roofing follows the technical rules of the roofers' federation ZVDH, alongside DIN standards such as DIN 4108 for thermal and moisture protection.

Manufacturers

• BMI GroupBMI Group is Standard Industries' European-based roofing and waterproofing group, formed in 2017 from Braas Monier and Icopal.
• BraasBraas is a German concrete and clay roof tile brand founded by Rudolf Braas, part of BMI Group, known for the Frankfurter Pfanne tile.
• Carlisle CompaniesCarlisle Companies is a US manufacturer, based in Scottsdale, Arizona, focused on commercial roofing and building envelope products.
• CreatonCreaton is a German clay roof tile manufacturer based in Wertingen, Bavaria, dating to 1884 and owned by Wienerberger since 2024.
• Cupa PizarrasCupa Pizarras is a Spanish producer of natural roofing slate operating since 1892, part of Cupa Group, with quarries in Galicia and exports to over 60 countries.
• EternitEternit is a fibre-cement trademark from Ludwig Hatschek's process patented in 1900, held in many markets by Belgium's Etex; other firms use it elsewhere.
• HolcimHolcim is a Swiss building-materials group founded in 1912 that built a large North American roofing business before spinning it off as Amrize in 2025.
• IcopalIcopal is a Danish-origin flat-roofing and waterproofing brand bought by Standard Industries in 2016 and merged into BMI Group in 2017.
• IKOIKO is a family-owned roofing manufacturer founded in Calgary, Canada in 1951, producing asphalt shingles, low-slope membranes and insulation in North America and Europe.
• Johns ManvilleJohns Manville is a Denver-based maker of commercial roofing systems, insulation and engineered products, founded in 1858 and owned by Berkshire Hathaway since 2001.
• Kingspan GroupKingspan is an Irish building-envelope group founded in 1965, known for insulated metal roof and wall panels and, since 2022, a roofing and waterproofing division.
• MarleyMarley is a UK maker of concrete and clay roof tiles, battens and integrated solar roofing, now part of Marshalls.
• Nordic WaterproofingNordic Waterproofing is a Helsingborg, Sweden-based group of roofing and waterproofing brands in northern Europe, majority-owned by Kingspan since 2024.
• OndulineOnduline is a French roofing manufacturer founded about 80 years ago, known for lightweight corrugated roofing sheets and present in more than 100 countries.
• PolyglassPolyglass is an Italian-origin maker of modified-bitumen membranes and underlayments, owned by Mapei since 2008, with US headquarters in Deerfield Beach, Florida.
• RedlandRedland is a British roof tile brand founded in 1919 as the Redhill Tile Company; it is now BMI Redland, part of Standard Industries' BMI Group.
• RheinzinkRheinzink is a German producer of titanium zinc for roofing, facades and rainwater systems, founded in 1966 in Datteln and part of the Grillo Group.
• RuukkiRuukki is the Finnish steel building-products brand of Rautaruukki, owned by Sweden's SSAB since 2014, supplying steel roofing across northern and eastern Europe.
• Saint-GobainSaint-Gobain is a French building-materials group founded in 1665 whose roofing interests include CertainTeed and Building Products of Canada.
• SikaSika is a Swiss specialty chemicals company founded in 1910 whose roofing range includes Sarnafil and Sikaplan single-ply membranes and liquid-applied roofing.
• SopremaSoprema is a family-controlled French manufacturer of waterproofing, insulation and green-roof products, founded in 1908 and active in about 90 countries.
• Standard IndustriesStandard Industries is a privately held New York-based industrial group that owns GAF, BMI Group, Siplast and other building-materials businesses.
• Tegola CanadeseTegola Canadese is an Italian maker of asphalt (bitumen) shingles and roofing components based in Vittorio Veneto, part of the IWIS Group.
• TerrealTerreal is a French maker of clay roof tiles and brick formed in 2002 from older French tile works, and part of Wienerberger since 2024.
• Tremco RoofingTremco Roofing is the commercial roofing and building maintenance business of Tremco CPG, part of RPM International, based in Beachwood, Ohio.
• WienerbergerWienerberger is a Vienna-based building-materials group founded in 1819, the world's largest brick maker and a leading European producer of clay and concrete roof tiles.

Organizations & Associations

• BAU (Munich)BAU is a large biennial trade fair in Munich, Germany, for architecture, building materials and systems, organised by Messe München.
• BuildwiseBuildwise, formerly the Belgian Building Research Institute, is the research and technical-advice centre of the Belgian construction industry.
• Confederation of Roofing Contractors (CORC)CORC is a UK roofing trade association established in 1985 that offers members insurance-backed warranties and business support.
• Construction Industry Training Board (CITB)CITB is the statutory, levy-funded training board for the construction industry in Great Britain, established in 1964.
• DACH+HOLZ InternationalDACH+HOLZ International is a German trade fair for roofing, timber construction and building envelope trades, held in Cologne or Stuttgart.
• European Federation of Green Roof and Green Wall Associations (EFB)The EFB is a federation of national green roof and green wall associations in Europe, founded in 1997 by Austrian, German and Swiss groups.
• FLL (Landscape Research, Development and Construction Society)FLL is a German research society, founded in 1975 and based in Bonn, whose green roof guidelines are a widely used technical reference.
• German Roofers' Association (ZVDH)The ZVDH is the national federation of Germany's roofing trade, founded in 1949 and based in Cologne, representing about 6,700 roofing firms.
• Health and Safety Executive (HSE)The HSE is Great Britain's workplace health and safety regulator; its roof work guidance says almost one in five construction deaths involve roof work.
• Historic EnglandHistoric England is the public body that advises on England's historic environment, including the care and repair of historic roofs. It was formed in 2015.
• How to Find a Licensed Roofer (by Country)A country-by-country guide to how roofers are licensed or registered, and where homeowners can check a contractor's credentials.
• Institute of Roofing (IoR)The Institute of Roofing was a UK professional body for people in the roofing industry; it has ceased operations and is being dissolved.
• International Federation for the Roofing Trade (IFD)The IFD is an international federation of national roofing contractor associations, founded in 1952 and based in Germany.
• Lead Sheet Training Academy (LSTA)The Lead Sheet Training Academy is a UK training centre in Kent for leadwork and hard-metal roofing skills, approved by CITB.
• Liquid Roofing and Waterproofing Association (LRWA)The LRWA is a UK trade association for liquid-applied roofing and waterproofing, founded in 1979 and based in London.
• National Federation of Roofing Contractors (NFRC)The NFRC is the UK's largest roofing trade association, founded in 1892 and based in London, with over 1,350 members.
• National Society of Master Thatchers (NSMT)The National Society of Master Thatchers is a UK body of individual master thatchers, formed in 1967, which inspects members' work.
• Roofing ApprenticeshipStructured training that combines paid work with classroom instruction to qualify roofers; length, content and certification differ widely by country.
• Roofing Today (magazine)Roofing Today is a UK trade magazine and news site for roofing contractors and specifiers, published by Construction Media Publishing Ltd.
• Single Ply Roofing Association (SPRA)SPRA is the UK trade association for the single-ply membrane roofing industry, covering products, installation, training and aftercare.
• Thatching Advisory ServicesThatching Advisory Services is a UK firm based in Devon that gives advice on thatching and thatch fire safety and supplies fire-protection systems.
• TrustMarkTrustMark is the UK Government Endorsed Quality Scheme for home improvement work, including roofing, with vetted registered businesses.

History of Roofing

• Ancient Greek Roof TilesHow the Greeks developed interfitting terracotta and marble roof tiles, beginning with the 7th-century BCE Protocorinthian system at Corinth.
• AntefixA vertical ornamental block, usually terracotta, that closed the open end of each cover tile along the eaves of Greek, Etruscan and Roman roofs.
• Bronze Age and Iron Age RoundhouseThe circular house with a conical thatched roof that was standard in Britain and Ireland from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.
• Catalan VaultA shallow vault of thin flat tiles laid in layers without formwork, from Catalonia and Valencia; brought to the US by Rafael Guastavino.
• Çatalhöyük RoofsThe flat roofs of Neolithic Çatalhöyük in Turkey, where houses had no streets between them and people entered from the roof.
• CrannogAn artificial island dwelling in a lake, bog or estuary in Scotland and Ireland, typically topped by a roundhouse with a conical roof.
• Crystal PalaceJoseph Paxton's iron-and-glass hall for the Great Exhibition of 1851, with a ridge-and-furrow glass roof of about 293,000 panes.
• Dinorwic QuarryA vast former slate quarry above Llanberis, Gwynedd, which employed over 3,000 men in the late 19th century and closed in 1969.
• Dome of St Peter's BasilicaThe double-shelled brick dome of St Peter's Basilica in Vatican City, designed by Michelangelo and completed in 1590 by della Porta and Fontana.
• Earliest Fired Clay Roof TilesThe oldest known fired clay roof tiles: Neolithic pan and cover tiles from Qiaocun, China, and early flat tiles from mainland Greece.
• Etruscan Terracotta RoofsEtruscan temples of central Italy, from about 600 BC, had timber roofs edged with brightly painted terracotta antefixes, revetments and ridge statues.
• Filippo BrunelleschiFlorentine architect and engineer (1377-1446) who designed and built the dome of Florence Cathedral without timber centring.
• Florence Cathedral DomeBrunelleschi's brick double-shell dome over Florence Cathedral, built 1420-1436 and the first octagonal dome raised without temporary timber centring.
• François MansartFrench Baroque architect (1598-1666) whose frequent use of the double-sloped roof gave the mansard its name.
• Frei OttoGerman architect and engineer (1925-2015), a pioneer of lightweight tensile and membrane roofs, including the Munich Olympic roofs.
• Great Fire of London (1666)The fire of 2-5 September 1666 destroyed about 13,200 houses; the rebuilding laws that followed banned exterior timber and favoured brick, stone and tile.
• Hagia Sophia DomeThe great dome of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, built 532-537, rebuilt after a collapse in 558 and repaired after further failures in 989 and 1346.
• Hammerbeam RoofAn open timber roof truss of English Gothic origin in which short brackets (hammer beams) project from the walls, allowing spans longer than any single timber.
• History of Asbestos Cement RoofingAsbestos cement sheets and slates, patented by Ludwig Hatschek in 1900 and sold as Eternit, roofed buildings worldwide until health risks led to bans.
• History of Cool RoofsCool roofs reflect sunlight to stay cooler; research at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the Cool Roof Rating Council (1998) shaped modern practice.
• History of Copper RoofsCopper has roofed temples, cathedrals and castles for centuries, prized for its long life and the green patina it develops over decades.
• History of Green RoofsFrom Scandinavian sod roofs to the modern German green roof industry of the 1970s and city mandates such as Toronto's 2009 by-law.
• History of Roofing Fire RegulationsHow urban fires led cities to ban thatch and wood roofs, from London in 1212 to Boston in 1631 and 1872 and the US push against wood shingles in 1916.
• History of Single-Ply MembranesHow factory-made sheets of synthetic rubber and plastics (EPDM, CSPE, PVC, TPO) replaced much hot-applied built-up roofing on flat roofs.
• History of Standing Seam RoofingStanding seam roofing grew from centuries-old hand-folded joints in copper, lead and zinc sheet into today's machine-formed metal panel systems.
• History of Thatch in BritainThatch was the main roof of rural England until the late 1800s; around 60,000 thatched properties survive in the UK, some with base coats over 500 years old.
• History of the Geodesic DomeGeodesic domes, spherical frames of triangles, were first built by Walther Bauersfeld in Jena in the 1920s and popularised by Buckminster Fuller after 1948.
• History of the Mansard RoofThe mansard is a double-sloped hip roof named after François Mansart; it first appeared around 1550 and boomed with Second Empire architecture.
• History of Timber Roof FramingHow carpenters moved from simple paired rafters to medieval trusses, hammerbeams and, in modern times, factory-made metal-plate trusses.
• Imbrex and TegulaThe ancient Greek and Roman roof tile system of flat tiles (tegulae) with half-round tiles (imbrices) covering the joints.
• Invention of Corrugated Iron (1829)In 1829 Henry Robinson Palmer of the London Dock Company patented corrugated metal sheets, whose ridges let thin iron span roofs unsupported.
• Jørn UtzonDanish architect (1918-2008) who designed the Sydney Opera House, with its tiled shell roofs, and won the Pritzker Prize in 2003.
• Joseph PaxtonEnglish gardener, glasshouse designer and MP (1803-1865) who designed the Crystal Palace and its ridge-and-furrow glass roof.
• Lazaret Cave ShelterA cave in Nice, France, where a line of stones has been interpreted as the base of a skin tent pitched against the wall about 186,000-127,000 years ago.
• Lepenski Vir HousesTrapezoidal Mesolithic-Neolithic houses on the Danube in Serbia with plastered floors and stone hearths; how they were roofed is still debated.
• Linear Pottery LonghouseThe long timber houses of Europe's first farmers, the Linear Pottery (LBK) culture, with thatched roofs carried on three internal rows of posts.
• Ludwig HatschekAustrian industrialist (1855-1914) who patented the asbestos cement sheet process in 1900 and named the product Eternit in 1903.
• Medieval Lead RoofsSheet lead was the prestige covering for medieval cathedrals, abbeys and halls in Europe, valued for its watertightness and ease of shaping.
• Mezhyrich Mammoth-Bone DwellingsIce Age shelters in central Ukraine built around a base of mammoth skulls and long bones, probably covered with hides or bark and weighted with tusks.
• Millennium DomeLondon's fabric-roofed dome, 365 m (1,200 ft) across with 12 masts, opened for the year 2000 and now housing the O2 entertainment complex.
• Munich Olympic Stadium RoofThe cable-net tent roof of acrylic glass over Munich's Olympic Park, designed by Behnisch & Partner with Frei Otto and completed in 1972.
• Must FarmA Bronze Age stilt village in Cambridgeshire, England, that burned about 850 BCE, preserving roundhouse roofs of straw, turf and clay in the river silt.
• Notre-Dame de Paris Roof Fire (2019)The fire of 15 April 2019 destroyed Notre-Dame's 13th-century oak roof 'forest', its lead covering and spire; both were rebuilt in oak and lead by 2024.
• Ottoman Domes in the BalkansDomed mosques built under Ottoman rule across the Balkans, usually brick domes covered with tiles at first and with lead sheet by the 16th century.
• Pantheon DomeThe concrete dome of the Pantheon in Rome, completed around 126 CE, still the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world at 43.3 m (142 ft).
• Penrhyn QuarryA slate quarry near Bethesda, Gwynedd, which at the end of the 19th century was the largest slate quarry in the world and is still worked.
• Penrhyn Strike (1900-1903)A three-year strike and lock-out at Penrhyn slate quarry in Wales, often called the longest dispute in British industrial history.
• Prehistoric Shelters and Early ThatchWhat archaeology can and cannot say about the first roofs: brushwood huts, mammoth-bone dwellings and the likely Neolithic origin of straw thatch.
• Roman Brick and Tile StampsMarks pressed into Roman bricks and roof tiles before firing, naming makers, owners, legions or consuls; archaeologists use them to date buildings.
• Scandinavian Sod RoofsTurf laid over layers of birch bark, the traditional roof of rural Norway and much of Scandinavia from prehistory until the 18th-19th centuries.
• Skara Brae and Neolithic Orkney RoofsThe debate over how the stone houses of Skara Brae, Orkney, were roofed, and the sandstone roof slabs found at the nearby Ness of Brodgar.
• Slate Landscape of Northwest WalesA UNESCO World Heritage Site inscribed in 2021, recognising the Gwynedd slate quarries that roofed much of the world from 1780 to 1940.
• St Paul's Cathedral DomeChristopher Wren's triple-layered dome over St Paul's Cathedral, London, completed in 1708-1711 and rising 111 m (365 ft) to the cross.
• Terra AmataA Lower Palaeolithic beach site in Nice, France, interpreted as a camp of pole-and-hide huts about 400,000 years old; the interpretation is disputed.
• Viking Age LonghouseThe long, often curved-walled farmhouse of Viking Age Scandinavia, roofed with reed, straw, turf or wooden shingles depending on region and status.
• Welsh Slate IndustryThe slate quarries of north-west Wales, which by the late 19th century produced about a third of the world's roofing slate.
• Westminster Hall RoofThe oak hammerbeam roof of Westminster Hall, London, commissioned by Richard II in 1393 and the largest medieval timber roof in northern Europe.
• Zinc Roofs of ParisThe grey zinc roofscape of Paris, established in the mid-19th century under Napoleon III and Haussmann and proposed for UNESCO listing since 2014.

Roofing Around the World

• Aspen Ploughshare Shingles (Lemekh)Carved aspen shingles, called lemekh or 'ploughshares', that clad the domes, barrels and tent roofs of wooden churches in the Russian North, as at Kizhi.
• Birch-Bark RoofingLayers of birch bark used as a waterproof roof membrane under turf, poles or wooden shingles in Scandinavia, Finland, Russia and the Baltic region.
• Coppo (Italian Curved Tile)The coppo is the traditional Italian curved clay roof tile, laid as alternating channels and covers or over flat embrici, descended from Roman roofing.
• Couvreur-ZingueurThe Parisian roofer who works zinc and slate; the skills of Paris roofers and ornamentalists joined UNESCO's intangible heritage list in 2024.
• Cycladic Flat RoofWhitewashed flat masonry roof of the Greek Cyclades, built for a dry, windy climate and used to collect rainwater; often paired with domed churches.
• Dalmatian Stone Slab RoofTraditional roofs of thin limestone slabs (kamene ploče) on houses and dry-stone huts (bunje) of the Croatian Adriatic coast and islands.
• DarbaziTraditional Georgian house with a stepped, corbelled timber roof (gvirgvini) rising to a central smoke and light opening.
• Dutch and Danish Reed ThatchWater-reed thatched roofs of the Netherlands, Denmark and northern Germany, used on farmhouses, cottages and modern architect-designed houses.
• English ThatchThatched roofs of England in long straw, combed wheat reed or water reed, with regional styles and a 12-15 year ridge maintenance cycle.
• Icelandic Turf HouseTraditional Icelandic building of turf blocks over a timber frame on a stone base, with a turf-covered roof; on Iceland's UNESCO Tentative List.
• Irish ThatchStraw and reed thatched roofs on whitewashed Irish cottages, an ancient building tradition now mostly preserved on heritage and holiday homes.
• Kozolec (Slovenian Hayrack)A kozolec is a permanent, usually roofed timber hayrack used to dry hay and maize, regarded as a symbol of Slovenian vernacular architecture.
• Kulla (Balkan Tower House)A kulla is a fortified stone tower house of Albania, Kosovo and neighbouring Balkan lands, with thick walls, small openings and tall stone storeys.
• Læsø Seaweed RoofA thick roof of dried eelgrass laid over timber on the Danish island of Læsø, developed in the 17th century when salt boiling had stripped the island of trees.
• LauzeA lauze is a flat stone slab of schist or limestone used as a heavy roof covering in the mountains and plateaux of southern and central France.
• Maltese Deffun RoofThe traditional Maltese flat roof: limestone slabs, a lime-and-stone fill, and a beaten surface of lime and crushed pottery called deffun.
• Maramureș Wooden Church RoofsThe steep shingle roofs and needle-like spires of the wooden churches of Maramureș, Romania, eight of which are on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
• Onion DomeBulb-shaped dome tapering to a point, typical of Russian Orthodox churches and also common on churches in Bavaria and Austria.
• PallozaA palloza is a round or oval stone house with a conical rye-straw thatched roof, traditional in the Ancares mountains of north-west Spain.
• Piode (Stone Roof Slabs)Piode are hand-split stone slabs, usually gneiss, used as heavy traditional roofs in Ticino and neighbouring Alpine valleys of Switzerland and Italy.
• Roofing in AlbaniaHow Albania roofs its buildings: the stone-slab roofs of Gjirokastër, tiered houses of Berat, kulla towers of the north, and post-communist concrete.
• Roofing in AndorraAndorran roofing: natural stone-slate roofs on Pyrenean rural buildings and bordes, now required by government construction criteria.
• Roofing in ArmeniaArmenian roofing: stone churches with conical tuff domes and tuff-shingle roofs, and corbelled timber glkhatun roofs in old houses.
• Roofing in AustriaAustrian roofing: clay and concrete tiles, Alpine wooden shingles and sheet metal for heavy snow, regulated by nine state building codes and ÖNORM B 3419.
• Roofing in AzerbaijanAzerbaijani roofing: windy Absheron flat roofs with asphalt coverings, corbelled karadam lantern roofs, and modern concrete.
• Roofing in BelarusBelarusian roofing: thatched gable roofs on log village houses, preserved at the Strochitsy open-air museum, Mir Castle's towers, and Soviet-era asbestos-cement sheet.
• Roofing in BelgiumBelgian roofing: ceramic tiles in the lowlands, Ardennes slate in the south, reed thatch in Flanders, and a historic role in zinc and fibre-cement.
• Roofing in Bosnia and HerzegovinaHow Bosnia and Herzegovina roofs its buildings: steep timber roofs on Ottoman-era houses, shingle and stone-slab tower roofs, and domed mosques.
• Roofing in BulgariaBulgarian roofing: low-pitched tiled roofs with deep eaves on Revival-period houses, heavy stone-slab (tikli) roofs in the Rhodopes and Balkan villages.
• Roofing in CroatiaHow Croatia roofs its buildings: stone-slab roofs and dry-stone bunje on the Dalmatian coast, clay tile inland, and the all-stone vault of Šibenik Cathedral.
• Roofing in CyprusHow Cyprus roofs its buildings: Neolithic flat roofs, earth-on-reed roofs in the lowlands, pitched tiled roofs in the Troodos mountains, and modern concrete.
• Roofing in CzechiaCzech roofing: steep clay beaver-tail (bobrovka) roofs, Moravian-Silesian slate, Baroque village gables and slate roofs in Prague.
• Roofing in DenmarkDanish roofing: reed thatch, Læsø seaweed roofs, red clay tiles and copper spires, and today a stock dominated by fibre-cement, tile and flat built-up roofs.
• Roofing in EstoniaEstonian roofing: the tall thatched roof of the barn-dwelling (rehielamu), of reed or rye straw, over chimneyless log farmhouses, and modern steel and membrane roofs.
• Roofing in FinlandFinnish roofing: birch-bark pole roofs, tarred shingles on wooden churches, Iron Age tar-making, and today's steel sheet roofs built for snow and frost.
• Roofing in FranceFrench roofing: interlocking and flat clay tiles, southern canal tiles, slate, Paris zinc and mountain lauzes, governed by NF DTU rules and ten-year liability.
• Roofing in GeorgiaGeorgian roofing: corbelled timber darbazi roofs, conical church domes on tall drums, and the stone tower houses of Svaneti.
• Roofing in GermanyGerman roofing: Biberschwanz and interlocking clay tiles, concrete tiles, Mosel slate, northern reed thatch, green roofs and a regulated roofers' craft.
• Roofing in GreeceHow Greece roofs its buildings: the birthplace of the European clay tile, with Minoan flat roofs, Byzantine domes, Cycladic terraces and stone roofs in Epirus.
• Roofing in HungaryHungarian roofing: straw and reed thatch on purlin-and-rafter roofs, shingles in the hills, Palóc villages like Hollókő, and Zsolnay glazed ceramic roofs.
• Roofing in IcelandIcelandic roofing: a thousand years of turf over driftwood frames, then painted corrugated iron and concrete, built for wind, rain, freeze-thaw and earthquakes.
• Roofing in IrelandIrish roofing: a thatch tradition replaced by slate and later concrete tile and fibre-cement slate, all built to resist Atlantic wind and rain.
• Roofing in ItalyHow Italy roofs its buildings: coppi and Roman-style tile roofs, stone slabs in the Alps and Puglia, flat terraces in the south, and many landmark domes.
• Roofing in KosovoRoofing in Kosovo: thick-walled stone kulla tower houses of the Dukagjini region and domed medieval Serbian Orthodox monasteries such as Visoki Dečani.
• Roofing in LatviaLatvian roofing: steep gabled thatched roofs of rye straw and reed on farmsteads, a gable form echoed in Riga's Art Nouveau, and a small revival of thatch.
• Roofing in LiechtensteinLiechtenstein roofing: pitched roofs on old timber farmhouses of the Rhine valley and modern Alpine houses, regulated by the 2008 Building Act.
• Roofing in LithuaniaLithuanian roofing: thatched farmsteads of five ethnographic regions, wooden fishermen's houses of the Curonian Spit, and modern steel and membrane roofs.
• Roofing in LuxembourgLuxembourg roofing: slate from the Ardennes uplands, mined at Haut-Martelange until 1986, on houses, castles and churches across the Grand Duchy.
• Roofing in MaltaHow Malta roofs its buildings: flat limestone-slab roofs sealed with lime and crushed-pottery deffun, corbelled giren huts, and modern concrete roofs.
• Roofing in MoldovaMoldovan roofing: four- and two-pitched roofs of reed over wattle-and-clay village houses, carved wooden gable 'spears', and Soviet-era asbestos-cement sheet.
• Roofing in MonacoMonaco roofing: terracotta tiles on older buildings, a dense high-rise skyline, and government promotion of green and solar roofs.
• Roofing in MontenegroHow Montenegro roofs its buildings: karst stone houses with curved clay tiles, earlier straw, slate or stone slabs, and the Venetian towns of Kotor Bay.
• Roofing in North MacedoniaRoofing in North Macedonia: Byzantine domed churches of Ohrid, Ottoman mosque domes in Skopje, and a building code shaped by the 1963 Skopje earthquake.
• Roofing in NorwayNorwegian roofing: birch-bark and turf roofs, tarred stave-church shingles, phyllite slate and today's tile, steel and membranes, built for snow, rain and wind.
• Roofing in PolandPolish roofing: shingled wooden churches, Zakopane-style highland roofs, clay tile, asbestos sheets to remove by 2032, and a market led by metal roofing.
• Roofing in Poland and Eastern EuropeOverview of roofing in Poland and Eastern Europe: wooden shingle heritage, clay and concrete tile, metal sheet tiles and legacy asbestos-cement sheets.
• Roofing in PortugalHow Portugal roofs its buildings: low-pitched clay tile roofs almost everywhere, schist and slate in the interior, and flat terraces in the Algarve.
• Roofing in RomaniaRomanian roofing: fir-shingle church spires of Maramureș, reed thatch in the Danube Delta, Saxon tiled roofs with Sibiu's 'eyes', and seismic and snow codes.
• Roofing in RussiaRussian roofing: timber tent roofs, onion domes clad in aspen shingles, painted sheet iron, Soviet asbestos slate and flat panel-block roofs, and today's metal tile.
• Roofing in San MarinoRoofing in San Marino, a hilltop microstate on Mount Titano whose stone fortifications and historic centre are a UNESCO World Heritage site.
• Roofing in ScandinaviaOverview of roofing in Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland: turf and timber traditions, clay and concrete tiles, sheet metal and designs for snow.
• Roofing in SerbiaHow Serbia roofs its buildings: domed medieval churches, high-hipped log houses with straw or shingle roofs, tiled bondruk houses and modern tile and metal.
• Roofing in SlovakiaSlovak roofing: hand-split spruce and larch shingles on log villages such as Vlkolínec, Carpathian wooden churches, and the STN 73 1901 roof standard.
• Roofing in SloveniaHow Slovenia roofs its buildings, from straw- and shingle-roofed kozolec hayracks and Alpine herders' huts to modern tiled and metal roofs.
• Roofing in SpainHow Spain roofs its buildings: curved clay teja árabe across the centre and south, natural slate in the rainy north-west, and flat azoteas in dry areas.
• Roofing in SwedenSwedish roofing: turf and birch bark, tarred pine shingles on churches, Stockholm tar, and today's concrete tiles, steel sheet and felt, designed for snow.
• Roofing in SwitzerlandSwiss roofing: deep-eaved chalet roofs, tiled farmhouses, stone-slab roofs in Ticino, Valais and Graubünden, and Basel's extensive green roofs.
• Roofing in the Arctic and GreenlandOverview of roofing in Greenland and the Arctic: turf and timber traditions, metal and membrane roofs today, designed for snow, wind, cold and ice.
• Roofing in the NetherlandsDutch roofing: ceramic pantiles and interlocking tiles, a thriving reed-thatch trade with strict fire rules, and flat roofs turning green and blue.
• Roofing in the Netherlands and BelgiumOverview of Low Countries roofing: ceramic pantiles and flat tiles, a living reed-thatch tradition and many flat roofs with membranes and greenery.
• Roofing in the United KingdomUK roofing: Welsh, Scottish and Cornish slate, clay and concrete tiles, stone slates and thatch, built for a wet, windy maritime climate.
• Roofing in TurkeyTurkish roofing from Neolithic roof-entry houses at Çatalhöyük to Ottoman lead domes, clay tile, flat earth roofs and modern concrete.
• Roofing in UkraineUkrainian roofing: four-sloped straw and reed thatch on whitewashed khatas, shingle-clad wooden tserkvas in the Carpathians, Soviet shifer and post-war repair.
• Roofing in Vatican CityRoofing in Vatican City, the 44-hectare papal state whose skyline is dominated by the double-shelled masonry dome of St Peter's Basilica.
• Roofs of the Troodos Painted ChurchesSteep timber roofs with flat hooked tiles that cover the Byzantine painted churches of the Troodos mountains in Cyprus, a UNESCO World Heritage site.
• Schindel (Alpine and Central European Wood Shingles)Hand-split wooden roof and wall shingles traditional in the Alps and Central Europe, made from spruce, pine or larch and still used on heritage buildings.
• Shifer (Asbestos-Cement Slate)Shifer is the common Russian and Ukrainian name for corrugated asbestos-cement roofing sheet, the standard rural roof of the Soviet Union and its successor states.
• Spanish Mediterranean Terracotta RoofLow-pitched roof of curved terracotta tiles laid in alternating channels and caps, typical of Spain and the Mediterranean and of Spanish colonial architecture.
• St Stephen's Cathedral RoofThe steep glazed-tile roof of St Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna, about 230,000 tiles forming eagles and coats of arms, rebuilt on steel after a 1945 fire.
• Stave Church RoofsSteep, tiered timber roofs of Norway's medieval stave churches, such as Urnes (UNESCO) and Borgund, built to shed heavy rain and snow.
• Stone Roofs of GjirokastërThe flat dressed-stone roofs of Gjirokastër, Albania, an Ottoman-era hill town known as the "City of Stone" and a UNESCO World Heritage site.
• Stone Roofs of ZagoriRoofs of limestone or sandstone slabs, held by their own weight, on the stone villages of Zagori in Epirus, Greece, a UNESCO cultural landscape.
• Torvtak (Scandinavian Turf Roof)Traditional Norwegian and Scandinavian roof of birch bark covered with layers of turf, still used on cabins and heritage buildings.
• Trulli of AlberobelloDry-stone limestone houses in Puglia, Italy, capped by conical corbelled roofs of stone slabs; a UNESCO World Heritage property.
• Wooden Churches of Southern MałopolskaSix medieval log churches in southern Poland with tall, steep shingled roofs; inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2003.
• Wooden Tserkva Roofs of the CarpathiansShingle-clad tiered domes and pyramidal roofs of the Orthodox and Greek Catholic log churches (tserkvas) of the Carpathians in Poland, Ukraine and Slovakia.

Climate, Hazards & Sustainability

• Attic CondensationMoisture that condenses on the underside of a roof deck or framing, usually from warm indoor air leaking into a cold attic.
• Basel Green Roof PolicyBasel, Switzerland, has required green roofs on new and renovated flat roofs since a 2002 law change, with rules aimed at biodiversity.
• Blue RoofA flat or low-slope roof designed to store rainwater temporarily and release it slowly, reducing peak flows to storm sewers.
• Cool RoofA roof with high solar reflectance and high thermal emittance that stays cooler in sunlight, reducing cooling loads and urban heat.
• Copenhagen Green Roof PolicySince 2010, Copenhagen has required green roofs on new buildings with roofs sloped under 30 degrees, as part of climate adaptation.
• Ember-Resistant Roof DetailsRoof vents, gutters, closures and edges designed to keep wind-blown embers from igniting debris or entering the building during a wildfire.
• Embodied Carbon of RoofingThe greenhouse gas emissions from making, transporting, installing, maintaining and disposing of roofing materials, as opposed to operating the building.
• Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)A verified document reporting the life cycle environmental impacts of a product, such as a roofing material, using standard rules.
• Freeze-Thaw DamageCracking, spalling and flaking of porous roofing materials caused by water freezing and thawing repeatedly inside pores and cracks.
• French Green Roof and Solar Law (2015)A 2015 French law requiring roofs of new buildings in commercial zones to be partly covered with plants or solar panels.
• Green RoofA roof partly or fully covered with vegetation and growing medium over a waterproofing membrane, used for stormwater, cooling and habitat.
• Green Roofs in GermanyGermany pioneered modern green roof technology and guidelines, and many German cities support green roofs through planning rules and fees.
• Hail Damage to RoofsDamage caused when hailstones strike roofing: bruising and granule loss on shingles, cracked tiles and slates, dented metal and punctured membranes.
• Ice DamA ridge of ice that forms at the eaves of a snow-covered roof and traps meltwater, which can then back up under the roofing and leak.
• Roof Wind Pressure ZonesAreas of a roof (field, edge, corner) assigned different wind design pressures because suction is strongest near edges and corners.
• Roofing Waste and LandfillWaste generated by roof replacement and construction, its share of construction and demolition debris, and ways to reduce it.
• Single-Ply Membrane RecyclingCollection and recycling of PVC, TPO and other thermoplastic roofing membranes, including Europe's Roofcollect scheme.
• Snow LoadThe weight of accumulated snow and ice that a roof must be designed to carry, derived from local ground snow data and roof shape.
• Snow Sliding and Snow GuardsThe sudden release of snow and ice from a sloped roof, and the guards and rails installed to break it up and hold it in place.
• Wildfire RoofingRoof design and materials that reduce the chance of a building igniting from embers, radiant heat or flames during a wildfire or bushfire.

Problems, Repair & Maintenance

• Attic MouldMould growth on attic sheathing and framing, almost always driven by moisture from indoor air leaks, exhaust ducts or roof leaks.
• Nail SicknessFailure of the nails holding slates or tiles, usually through corrosion, so units slip or fall even though the slates themselves are sound.
• Ridge Repointing and RebeddingRenewal of the mortar that beds and seals ridge and hip tiles; in the UK, current standards also require mechanical fixing of these tiles.
• Roof MossMoss growth on shaded, damp roofs that holds water, lifts shingles and tiles, and blocks drainage if left to build up.
• Slate DelaminationThe splitting and flaking of roofing slate into thin layers as it weathers, marking the end of an individual slate's service life.
• Thatch Maintenance and DecayThe care cycle of a thatched roof, including periodic ridge replacement, patching, and eventual rethatching as the coatwork wears away.
• Zinc and Copper StripsMetal strips fixed near a roof's ridge whose rain runoff carries metal ions that discourage moss, algae and lichen below.

Tools & Equipment

• Roofing TorchA propane-fuelled open-flame torch used to melt the bitumen on torch-applied modified bitumen membranes during installation.
• Slate CutterA lever-action shear, often called a guillotine, that trims roofing slates to size and may also punch nail holes.
• Slate RipperA long, thin steel blade with hooked notches used to reach under slates or tiles and cut or pull the hidden nails holding a damaged unit.
• Slater's Hammer and ZaxTraditional slating hand tools: the slater's hammer drives nails, punches holes and trims slate; the zax is a bladed cutter with a punch point.